Cooperative Principle and Implicature

Kelompok 9 : Mawatdah
                     : Miftah Aulia Utami
                     : Shultoniah
                     : Ainul Qonitah

Cooperative Principle and Implicature

   

        The cooperative principle describes how people achieve effective conversational communication in common social situations—that is, how listeners and speakers act cooperatively and mutually accept one another to be understood in a particular way. As phrased by Paul Grice, who introduced it in his pragmatic theory.

 

"Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged".

Example:

A: (to passer by): I am out of gas.

B: There is a gas station round the corner.

What is the conversational implicature is contained in the example?

Speech Acts

 Kelompok 8  : Fara Apriyati

                       : Fenty Nurhayati Nufus

                       : Bai Fadliyah

                                                                     Speech Acts

A.    Definition Speech Acts

Speech acts are linguistic structures which are used with illocutionary force in specific social and institutional contexts. As they are often very closely linked with social and contextual factors, it is hard to delimit their purely linguistic properties, especially the lexical meaning which persists from context to context and over time. Two means of defining the semantics of performative verbs (and speech acts without explicit performative prefixes) are offered: (a) synchronic co-occurrences between speech acts and modifying adverbial clauses; and (b) patterns of historical change in the meaning and syntactic features of performative verbs. It is shown that adverbial reason and conditional clauses are subject to strong er restrictions when they modify speech acts that when they do not. They are restricted in ways which make direct reference to the felicity conditions on speech acts, while reference to motivation and accidental features produces deviant combinations. Historically, performative verbs like swear do not change in meaning and syntax, though conditions for use may change. In contrast, affirm has changed both its syntactic properties and acquired preformative meaning. Though social institutions change with time, performative verbs change slowly if at all in their essential semantic components.

B.     The Classification of Speech Acts

1.      Locutionary act (the act of saying something)

Locutionaryof or relating to the physical act of saying something considered apart from the statement's effect or inten tion. Following Austin (1962). What is said, the utterance, can be called the locution.Which is basic act of utterance, or producing a miningful linguistics expression.If you have difficulty with actually forming the sounds and words to create a meaningful linguistics expression. (For example : because it’s foreign or you are tongue-tied). Then you might fail to produce a lucutionary acts. This is the act of simply uttering a sentence from a language; it description of what the speaker says.It is the act of using a referring expression (e.g., a noun phrase) and a predicating expression (e.g., a verb phrase or adjective). For instance, if I say my watch is broken, the referring expression is my watch and the predicating expression is is broken. Locutionary act, at least, are not very important for understanding speech acts.

2.      Illocutionary act (the act of doing something)

Illocutionary is relating to or being the communicative effect (such as commanding or requesting) of an utterance. What the speaker intends to communicate to the addressee is the illocution. Austin dubbed "illocutionary" those sorts of speech acts that can (but need not) be performed by means of the performative formula. The illocutionary act is but one level of the total speech act that one performs in uttering a sentence. Consider that in general when one acts intentionally, one has a set of nested intentions. For instance, having arrived home without your keys, one might move your finger in acertain way with the intention not just of moving your finger in that way but with the further intentions of pushing a certain button, ringing the doorbell, arousing your spouse and ultimately getting into your house. The single bodily movement involved in moving your finger comprises a multiplicity of actions, each corresponding to a different one of the nested intentions. Similarly, speech acts are not just acts of producing certain sounds.

The illocutionary is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. We might utter to make a statement, an offer or for some other communicative purpose. This is generally known as illocutionary force of the utterance. This is what the speaker intends to do by uttering a sentence.

(Searle, 1990: 357-363) divides speech acts into:

v  Representatives >>>>> hypothesize, suggest, swear.

v  Directive >>>>> command, request, invite.

v  Commissives>>>>> undertake, promise, threaten.

v  Expressives>>>>> thank, congratulate, welcome.

v  Declarations >>>>> declare, name.

The intend associated with an illocutionary act is sometimes called the illocutionary force of the utterance. For example, If I say Close the door, the illocutionary force of the utterance is an order.Illocutionary acts, unlike locutionary acts, are at the very heart of our understanding of speech acts.

3.      Perlocutionary act (the act of affecting someone)

Perlocutionary is of or relating to an act (as of persuading, frightening, or annoying) performed by a speaker upon a listener by means of an utterance. The message that the addressee gets, his interpretation of what the speaker says, is the perlocution. If communication is successful, the illocution and the perlocution are alike or nearly alike.While illocutionary acts relate more to the speaker, perlocutionary acts are centered around the listener. Perlocutionary acts always have a 'perlocutionary effect' which is the effect a speech act has on a listener. This could affect the listener's thoughts, emotions or even their physical actions.^[15] An example of this could be if someone uttered the sentence "I'm hungry." The perlocutionary effect on the listener could be the effect of being persuaded by the utterance. For example, after hearing the utterance, the listener could be persuaded to make a sandwich for the speaker.

This is the effect on the hearer of what a speaker says. Perlocutionary acts would include such effects as persuading, embarrassing, intimidating, boring, irritating, on inspiring the hearer. Take a close look at these utterances, if a husband says to his wife ten times in five minutes Hurry up dear, we’re going to be late for the party.The illocutionary act might be one of urging, but the perlocutionary act is likely to be one of irritating.As with illocutionary acts, the effect associated with a perlocutionary act is sometimes referred to as the perlocutionary force of the utterance.

C.    Direct and Indirect Speech Acts

1)      Direct Speech

Direct speech can be used in virtually every tense in English. You can use it to describe something in the present tense to express something that is happening in the present moment, or make it feel like it is happening right now. In general, the syntactic form of utterance reflects the direct illucotuonary act.  

For Example ;

ü  She says, "what time will you be home?"

ü  She said, "what time will you be home?" and I said, "I don't know!"

ü  "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.

ü  John said, "there's an elephant outside the window."

ü  What time it is?

2)      Non-literal Direct

A speech act can be performed direct if it is intent if the words and structure of the utterance agree wit its function. Non-literal if the speaker does not mean what she or he says or the word does not mean like the word say.

For example ;

A : I think something needs tp be done about this (pointing dontzig belly). I would recommend possibly some sit-ups or maybe a bigger robe.

B : Ha, ha. Very neighborl.. ooh, got a new car. You know my wife, she had a car just like thi. Traded it in. she tought it was too girls.

3)      Indirect speech

Indirect speech is used to report what someone may have said, and so it is always used in the past tense. Instead of using interted commas, we can show that someones speech is being described by using the word "that" to introduce the statement first. And wherever there is an indirect relation between structure and fuction. The indirect speech act can be literal if the speaker means what she or he says.

For Example ;

·         She said that she had seen him.

·         A : He wants a cuddle. Just a little cuddle.

B : N o

·         Hery : I hope he doesn't mean these delicious things. I've been just eating.

·         Soni : He does

4)      Non-literal Indirect Speech

In the indirect act if where three is an indirect relation between structure and fuction of the utterances. No-literal meaning is if the speaker does not means what she or he said.

Example ;

A : so, stewart family, what would another leaves from your tree be doing in my hot tub?

B : I don't know maybe it wanted to party. Oh, come on. Just trying to be neighborly.   

Deixis and Distance in Semantics

Group 7 : Dina Roihatul Jannah

                  Maya Hafiah

                  Rina Sobarina

A.      The Meaning of Deixis and Distance

Deixis is a term that comes from Greek.  This term is used for one of the most basic things we often do with speech.  Deixis can also refer to something that means 'pointing' through language.  Whatever form of language is used, of course, to refer to this 'pointing' is called deictic expression.  The phrase is shown when seeing a strange object and immediately ask it.  For example 'What is that?  'shows the expression of the deictic expression (' that '), which means to show something in a direct context.  This deictic expression is also often referred to as indexical.  This is what is often said among the first forms spoken by very young children.  This expression is used to indicate people through deixis of people, or location through spatial deixis, or time through temporal deixis.  All of these expressions certainly depend on their interpretation, on speakers and listeners who share the same context.  Indeed, deictic expression has the most basic use in face-to-face oral interactions.

The remarks must of course be easily understood by the people present, but still need translation for someone who is not there.[1] P will put this here.  (Of course, you must understand that Jim told Anne that he would put an additional house key in one of the kitchen drawers.) That means the deixis here is a form of reference related to the speaker context, with the most basic difference between deictic expressions of being a 'near speaker'  'versus' stay away from the speaker'.In English, the 'near speaker', or proximal term, is 'this', 'here', 'now'.  'Far from the speaker', or distal term, is 'that', 'there', 'then'.  The term proximal is usually interpreted in terms of the location of the speaker, or the deictic center, so that 'now' is generally understood as referring to several points or periods of time that have the speaker's speech time at its center.

B.       The Kinds of Deixis

1.         Person Deixis

My first and second person pronouns, me, mine, mine, us, we, yours, yours, yours.  The pronoun is person deictic, this is because it refers entirely to things that depend on context.Differences in deixis here involve person deixis, which (speaker ('I') and the intended person ('You') are mentioned. The simplicity of these forms of expression is able to disguise the complexity of their use. To study deictic expressions, we must find that everyone in  a conversation will inevitably move from 'me' to 'you' all the time, all young people go through this stage in their learning, where this difference is so problematic, like those who say 'read your story' (instead  of 'me') when handing over a favorite books.

Deixis certainly operate in a basic three-part division which is exemplified by the first person pronouns ('I'), the second person ver ('you'), and the third person ('he', 'he', or 'that').In many languages ​​this deictic category of speakers, recipients, and others can be described as a marker of relative social status (for example, recipients of higher status versus recipients of lower status).  Regarding such a situation means referring to one form rather than the other forms, this is certainly described as social deixis.

In some languages ​​this form of deixis person is used with the aim of overcoming someone who depends on the relative social status of the person being addressed.  This social contrast is intended in personal deixis to distinguish between each unknown recipient. For example in French tu (familiar) and vous (non-familiar), this phenomenon is called T / V differentiation. Whereas in Thai there are eleven ways to say someone depends on the status of the person being addressed. The T / V difference, this is a form of communicating something about the relationship of the speaker with the recipient, so that if the speaker has a higher social status, is older or stronger, they will tend to use the T form for the recipient who has a lower social status, whereas the more  young and less powerful, who would tend to use V-forms in return.

But when this social change is happening, as in modern Spain, where a young entrepreneur (higher economic status) talks to an older janitor (lower economic status).  They spoke not looking at socioeconomic status, but paid more attention to the age difference still stronger than economic differences and older women using 'u and younger people using' Usted.

2.         Spatial Deixis

Spatial deixis, which explains the concept of distance that has been mentioned is clearly relevant to spatial deixation, where it designates the relative location of people and objects that are being designated.  Contemporary English uses only two adverbs, 'here' and 'there', for basic differences, but in older notes and in some dialects, the series of deictic expressions is far more numerous and also likely to be found.

The word 'here' is sometimes not the actual physical location of the person who said the words (speaker).  It could be that the basis of spatial deixis that actually has pragmatic meaning is actually psychological distance.  Objects that are physically close will tend to be treated by the speaker as psychologically close distances.  It is also the same if something that is physically far away will generally be treated as psychologically distant (for example, 'the man there').  However, a speaker might also want to mark something that is physically close (for example, the perfume that the speaker inhales) as psychologically distant 'I don't like it'.  In this analysis, words like 'that' have no fixed meaning (ie semantic);  conversely, 'invested' with meaning in context by the speaker.  Similar psychological processes seem to work in our difference between proximal and distal expressions used to mark temporal deixis.

3.         Temporal Deixis

The proximal form now can refer both to the time of speakers' utterances (e.g. when recording an answering machine message) and to the time of the message being played back to a caller (the hearer's now). While now refers to a (relative) time in present, its distal counterpart then refers to both past and future:- Why didn't they do it then? (at a past time)

- I'll be around tonight, so I'll see you then. (at a future time)

You see that it is relevant or appropriate to the speaker's current time, that is, his interpretation depends on knowing the relevant or correct speech time.  This also applies to deictic expressions such as:yesterday, tomorrow, today, tonight, next week, etc.

All these expressions depend for their interpretation on knowing the relevant utterance time. Imagine you want to speak to a professor and find the note back in an hoursticked to her office door. Without any information on when the note was posted on the door, you would not know if you will have a short or a long wait ahead.

Similarly, consider the following notice: "Free beer tomorrow". You can return the next day to this bar but will still be (deictically) one day early for the free beer. Temporal events can be treated as objects that move toward us or away from us, thus the psychological basis of temporal deixis is comparable with that of spatial deixis. In English, we use the metaphor of time as going by, that is, we treat events as coming toward the speaker from the future (e.g. the coming month, approaching Christmas) and as going away from the speaker to the past. One basic type of temporal deixis is in the choice of verb tense. We can say that the present tense is always the proximal form (e.g. I work here now) and the past tense is the distal form (e.g. I worked there then). The distal forms of temporal deixis are used to communicate not only distance from current time but also distance from current reality or facts. What is treated as extremely unlikely or impossible is also marked via the distal form (e.g. If I was a rich girl…).

C.      The Correlation Deixis and Grammar

The basic differences presented so far for people, spatial, and temporal deixis can all be seen from one of the most common structural differences made in English grammar, namely between direct and indirect speech.  As already explained, deictic expressions for people ('you'), place ('here'), and time ('tonight') can all be interpreted in the same context as the speaker when he speaks.

Example: - Do you plan to be here tonight?

- I asked him if he planned to be there that night.

When the context shifts, such as [b.], To what I reported in the previous statement, the previous statement is deactivated as relative to the state when requesting that the proximal forms presented in [a.] Have shifted to the appropriate.  distal form in [b.] This difference in the discourse of English reporting marks the difference between the meaning of 'near the speaker' from direct speech and 'far from speaker' the meaning of indirect speech.

The dexical form of proximal reporting of direct speech communicates, often dramatically, the feeling of being in the same context as the proximity disorder.  Disticting deictic forms of indirect speech make the original speech appear more distant.

Relationship Between Entailment and Presupposition

Group 6 : Rizky Aulia Rahman

                Nurannisa

                Naufali Syafira

Relationship Between Entailment and Presupposition

In pragmatis Presupposition is what the speaker assumes to be the casepriorto making anutterance. Entailment, whichis not a pragmatic concept is what logically follows from what isasserted in the utterance. Speakers have presuppositions  while sentences, not speakers, have entailments. Take a look at the example below:

Jane's brother bought twoapartments.

           This sentence presupposes that Jane exists and that she has a brother. The speake rmay also hold the more specific presupposition that she has only a brother and her brother has a lot of money. All these presuppositions are held by the speaker and allof them can be wrong.

Entailment

 Inentailment is the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one (A) requires the truth of the other (B). For example, the sentence (A) The president was assassinated. entails (B) The presidentis dead.

Presupposition

 The concept of presupposition is often treated as therelationship between two propositions. In the case below, we have a sentence that contains a proposition (p) and another proposition (q), which is easily presupposed by any listener. However, the speaker can produce a sentence by denying the proposition (p), obtaining as a result the same presupposition (q).

Debora's cat iscute. (p)

 Debora has a cat. (q)

When I say that Debora' s cat iscute, this sentence presupposes that Debora has a cat. In

 Debora' s cat is not cute.

Linguistic entailments occur when one may draw necessary conclusions from a particularuse of a word, phrase or sentence.  Entailment phrases are relations between propositions, and are always worded as, "if A then B," meaning that if A istrue, then B must also betrue.  Another way of phrasing thisis, "if A istrue, then B must necessarily be true.

            Entailment in the relationship between the speech with the intention is absolute.  That is, everything that is spoken through sentences or writing smustal ways be followed by logic