Speech Acts

 Kelompok 8  : Fara Apriyati

                       : Fenty Nurhayati Nufus

                       : Bai Fadliyah

                                                                     Speech Acts

A.    Definition Speech Acts

Speech acts are linguistic structures which are used with illocutionary force in specific social and institutional contexts. As they are often very closely linked with social and contextual factors, it is hard to delimit their purely linguistic properties, especially the lexical meaning which persists from context to context and over time. Two means of defining the semantics of performative verbs (and speech acts without explicit performative prefixes) are offered: (a) synchronic co-occurrences between speech acts and modifying adverbial clauses; and (b) patterns of historical change in the meaning and syntactic features of performative verbs. It is shown that adverbial reason and conditional clauses are subject to strong er restrictions when they modify speech acts that when they do not. They are restricted in ways which make direct reference to the felicity conditions on speech acts, while reference to motivation and accidental features produces deviant combinations. Historically, performative verbs like swear do not change in meaning and syntax, though conditions for use may change. In contrast, affirm has changed both its syntactic properties and acquired preformative meaning. Though social institutions change with time, performative verbs change slowly if at all in their essential semantic components.

B.     The Classification of Speech Acts

1.      Locutionary act (the act of saying something)

Locutionaryof or relating to the physical act of saying something considered apart from the statement's effect or inten tion. Following Austin (1962). What is said, the utterance, can be called the locution.Which is basic act of utterance, or producing a miningful linguistics expression.If you have difficulty with actually forming the sounds and words to create a meaningful linguistics expression. (For example : because it’s foreign or you are tongue-tied). Then you might fail to produce a lucutionary acts. This is the act of simply uttering a sentence from a language; it description of what the speaker says.It is the act of using a referring expression (e.g., a noun phrase) and a predicating expression (e.g., a verb phrase or adjective). For instance, if I say my watch is broken, the referring expression is my watch and the predicating expression is is broken. Locutionary act, at least, are not very important for understanding speech acts.

2.      Illocutionary act (the act of doing something)

Illocutionary is relating to or being the communicative effect (such as commanding or requesting) of an utterance. What the speaker intends to communicate to the addressee is the illocution. Austin dubbed "illocutionary" those sorts of speech acts that can (but need not) be performed by means of the performative formula. The illocutionary act is but one level of the total speech act that one performs in uttering a sentence. Consider that in general when one acts intentionally, one has a set of nested intentions. For instance, having arrived home without your keys, one might move your finger in acertain way with the intention not just of moving your finger in that way but with the further intentions of pushing a certain button, ringing the doorbell, arousing your spouse and ultimately getting into your house. The single bodily movement involved in moving your finger comprises a multiplicity of actions, each corresponding to a different one of the nested intentions. Similarly, speech acts are not just acts of producing certain sounds.

The illocutionary is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. We might utter to make a statement, an offer or for some other communicative purpose. This is generally known as illocutionary force of the utterance. This is what the speaker intends to do by uttering a sentence.

(Searle, 1990: 357-363) divides speech acts into:

v  Representatives >>>>> hypothesize, suggest, swear.

v  Directive >>>>> command, request, invite.

v  Commissives>>>>> undertake, promise, threaten.

v  Expressives>>>>> thank, congratulate, welcome.

v  Declarations >>>>> declare, name.

The intend associated with an illocutionary act is sometimes called the illocutionary force of the utterance. For example, If I say Close the door, the illocutionary force of the utterance is an order.Illocutionary acts, unlike locutionary acts, are at the very heart of our understanding of speech acts.

3.      Perlocutionary act (the act of affecting someone)

Perlocutionary is of or relating to an act (as of persuading, frightening, or annoying) performed by a speaker upon a listener by means of an utterance. The message that the addressee gets, his interpretation of what the speaker says, is the perlocution. If communication is successful, the illocution and the perlocution are alike or nearly alike.While illocutionary acts relate more to the speaker, perlocutionary acts are centered around the listener. Perlocutionary acts always have a 'perlocutionary effect' which is the effect a speech act has on a listener. This could affect the listener's thoughts, emotions or even their physical actions.^[15] An example of this could be if someone uttered the sentence "I'm hungry." The perlocutionary effect on the listener could be the effect of being persuaded by the utterance. For example, after hearing the utterance, the listener could be persuaded to make a sandwich for the speaker.

This is the effect on the hearer of what a speaker says. Perlocutionary acts would include such effects as persuading, embarrassing, intimidating, boring, irritating, on inspiring the hearer. Take a close look at these utterances, if a husband says to his wife ten times in five minutes Hurry up dear, we’re going to be late for the party.The illocutionary act might be one of urging, but the perlocutionary act is likely to be one of irritating.As with illocutionary acts, the effect associated with a perlocutionary act is sometimes referred to as the perlocutionary force of the utterance.

C.    Direct and Indirect Speech Acts

1)      Direct Speech

Direct speech can be used in virtually every tense in English. You can use it to describe something in the present tense to express something that is happening in the present moment, or make it feel like it is happening right now. In general, the syntactic form of utterance reflects the direct illucotuonary act.  

For Example ;

ü  She says, "what time will you be home?"

ü  She said, "what time will you be home?" and I said, "I don't know!"

ü  "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.

ü  John said, "there's an elephant outside the window."

ü  What time it is?

2)      Non-literal Direct

A speech act can be performed direct if it is intent if the words and structure of the utterance agree wit its function. Non-literal if the speaker does not mean what she or he says or the word does not mean like the word say.

For example ;

A : I think something needs tp be done about this (pointing dontzig belly). I would recommend possibly some sit-ups or maybe a bigger robe.

B : Ha, ha. Very neighborl.. ooh, got a new car. You know my wife, she had a car just like thi. Traded it in. she tought it was too girls.

3)      Indirect speech

Indirect speech is used to report what someone may have said, and so it is always used in the past tense. Instead of using interted commas, we can show that someones speech is being described by using the word "that" to introduce the statement first. And wherever there is an indirect relation between structure and fuction. The indirect speech act can be literal if the speaker means what she or he says.

For Example ;

·         She said that she had seen him.

·         A : He wants a cuddle. Just a little cuddle.

B : N o

·         Hery : I hope he doesn't mean these delicious things. I've been just eating.

·         Soni : He does

4)      Non-literal Indirect Speech

In the indirect act if where three is an indirect relation between structure and fuction of the utterances. No-literal meaning is if the speaker does not means what she or he said.

Example ;

A : so, stewart family, what would another leaves from your tree be doing in my hot tub?

B : I don't know maybe it wanted to party. Oh, come on. Just trying to be neighborly.